Free Solved Assignment IGNOU MHI-105: History of Indian Economy-1 From Earliest Times to c.1700 Current Year 2024-2025 Pdf

Free Solved Assignment IGNOU MHI-105: History of Indian Economy-1 From Earliest Times to c.1700 Current Year 2024-2025 Pdf

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MHI-105: History of Indian Economy-1 From Earliest Times to c.1700

                                                                                                                              Course Code: MHI-105

Assignment Code: MHI-103/AST/TMA/2024-25

Total Marks: 100

Note: Attempt any five questions. The assignment is divided into two Sections 'A' and 'B'. You have to attempt at least two questions from each section in about 500 words each. All questions carry equal marks. 

Question 1. Account for the recent trends in the economic history writings of Ancient India.

Ans. Recent trends in the economic history writings of Ancient India reflect a multidisciplinary approach, with scholars incorporating new methodologies, perspectives, and sources to understand the complexities of ancient Indian economies. Here’s an overview of the key trends:

1. Use of Archaeological and Epigraphic Data

• Archaeology and Material Culture: There has been a significant increase in the use of archaeological findings, such as artifacts, pottery, tools, and settlement patterns, to reconstruct economic activities. This includes the study of ancient trade routes, urbanization, and agricultural practices.
• Epigraphy and Numismatics: Inscriptions and coins have become crucial sources for understanding economic transactions, taxation, land grants, and the role of the state in economic regulation. Recent studies focus on deciphering these inscriptions to gain insights into the socio-economic conditions of various periods.

2. Interdisciplinary Approaches

• Integration of Environmental Studies: Researchers are increasingly examining the relationship between the environment and the economy. This includes the study of monsoon patterns, river systems, and their impact on agriculture and trade.
• Anthropological Perspectives: By incorporating anthropological theories, scholars are exploring the economic practices of different communities, including tribal and pastoral groups, which were often marginalized in earlier narratives.

3. Focus on Regional and Local Histories

• Decentralized Economic Histories: Instead of focusing solely on pan-Indian narratives, there is a growing interest in regional studies. Scholars are examining the economic histories of specific regions, highlighting the diversity in economic practices across different parts of India.
• Microhistories: Localized studies of specific sites or communities provide a granular understanding of economic activities, challenging broad generalizations.

4. Re-evaluation of Textual Sources

• Critical Analysis of Ancient Texts: Traditional texts like the Arthashastra, Manusmriti, and various Puranas are being re-evaluated. Scholars are questioning earlier interpretations, especially those influenced by colonial perspectives, and are offering new readings that consider the socio-economic contexts in which these texts were produced.
• Incorporation of Lesser-Known Texts: There is an increasing focus on exploring lesser-known Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Tamil texts, which provide alternative perspectives on economic life.

5. Global and Comparative Perspectives

• Trade and Connectivity: The role of Ancient India in global trade networks, including connections with the Roman Empire, Southeast Asia, and the Silk Road, is being studied with greater emphasis. This includes the impact of these trade networks on local economies and social structures.
• Comparative Economic Histories: Scholars are comparing the economic systems of ancient India with those of other contemporary civilizations, such as China, Persia, and the Mediterranean, to understand similarities and differences.

6. Reassessment of the State’s Role in the Economy

• State and Economy: There is ongoing debate about the role of the state in ancient Indian economies. Recent studies explore the extent of state control over resources, taxation, and redistribution, with some arguing for a more decentralized model of governance and economy.
• Economic Institutions: The functioning of guilds, markets, and other economic institutions is being re-examined, with a focus on their autonomy and interaction with state authorities.

7. Impact of Social Stratification

• Caste and Economic Roles: The relationship between social hierarchies, especially the caste system, and economic roles is being explored in greater depth. Scholars are investigating how caste influenced occupational specialization, wealth distribution, and economic mobility.
• Gender and Economy: The economic roles of women in ancient India, which have been historically underrepresented, are receiving more attention. This includes their participation in agriculture, crafts, trade, and household economies.

8. Technological and Agricultural Developments

• Technological Innovation: The study of ancient technologies, such as irrigation systems, metallurgy, and textile production, is helping to understand their impact on economic productivity and social organization.
• Agricultural Practices: Recent research is focusing on the diversity of agricultural practices, crop varieties, and the management of resources like water and land, providing insights into the sustainability and resilience of ancient economies.

These trends reflect a broader shift towards a more nuanced, inclusive, and interconnected understanding of ancient Indian economic history, moving away from earlier, more rigid interpretations

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Question 2. To what extent geographical regions determined the agricultural map of India.

Ans. Geographical regions played a significant role in shaping the agricultural map of India, determining the types of crops cultivated, the agricultural practices employed, and the overall productivity of different regions. The diversity in climate, soil types, topography, and water availability across India has led to distinct agricultural zones, each with its own set of characteristics and challenges.

1. Climate and Rainfall Patterns

• Monsoon Dependence: The Indian subcontinent's agriculture has historically been heavily dependent on the monsoon. Regions with reliable monsoon rains, such as the Indo-Gangetic Plains, Western Ghats, and the Eastern coast, developed intensive agriculture with crops like rice, wheat, and pulses. In contrast, regions with irregular or scarce rainfall, like parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and the Deccan Plateau, adapted to grow drought-resistant crops like millets, sorghum, and pulses.
• Seasonality and Cropping Patterns: The bimodal monsoon pattern (summer and winter) led to the development of two major cropping seasons—Kharif (summer) and Rabi (winter). Kharif crops, including rice, maize, and cotton, are typically sown with the onset of the southwest monsoon, while Rabi crops like wheat, barley, and mustard are sown after the monsoon retreat.

2. Soil Types and Their Influence

• Alluvial Soils of the Indo-Gangetic Plains: The fertile alluvial soils deposited by the rivers Ganga, Yamuna, and Brahmaputra are highly conducive to agriculture, supporting the cultivation of major cereals like rice and wheat, as well as a variety of pulses and sugarcane.
• Black Soils of the Deccan Plateau: Also known as Regur soil, this type is rich in clay and retains moisture well, making it ideal for cotton cultivation. The Deccan region, particularly Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and parts of Gujarat, became the cotton belt of India due to these soils.
• Red and Laterite Soils: Found in the Eastern and Southern parts of India, these soils are less fertile due to leaching and require careful management. They support crops like millets, groundnuts, and pulses, which are less demanding in terms of soil fertility.
• Desert Soils: The arid regions of Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat have sandy, saline soils. Agriculture here is limited and dependent on irrigation, with crops like millets, barley, and legumes being predominant.

3. Topography and Water Resources

• River Valleys and Plains: The flat, fertile plains along major rivers such as the Ganges, Yamuna, Godavari, Krishna, and Cauvery have historically been centers of intensive agriculture due to the availability of water and rich alluvial soils. These regions have supported high-density population settlements and surplus agricultural production.
• Hilly and Mountainous Regions: The topography of the Himalayas, Western Ghats, and Eastern Ghats limited large-scale agriculture due to the steep slopes and rocky terrain. However, these regions developed terrace farming to grow crops like tea, coffee, spices, and horticultural products like apples and oranges, which are suited to cooler climates and higher altitudes.
• Irrigated Regions: In areas where rainfall is insufficient, such as parts of Punjab, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, and the Deccan Plateau, irrigation infrastructure has played a crucial role in transforming the agricultural landscape. The introduction of canal systems and wells has allowed the cultivation of water-intensive crops like rice, sugarcane, and wheat in otherwise arid or semi-arid regions.

4. Regional Specialization and Crop Diversity

• Rice in the East and South: Regions like the Indo-Gangetic Plains, Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu, with abundant water and clayey soils, have historically been rice-growing regions. The predominance of rice in these areas is due to the crop's high water requirements and the suitability of the local soils and climate.
• Wheat in the North and West: The relatively drier but fertile regions of Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh became the wheat-growing belt of India, especially after the Green Revolution, which introduced high-yielding varieties and irrigation facilities.
• Millets and Pulses in Dry Regions: The dry regions of Rajasthan, Karnataka, and parts of Maharashtra have historically focused on the cultivation of millets like bajra (pearl millet) and jowar (sorghum), which are drought-resistant and require less water.
• Cash Crops in Coastal and Tropical Regions: The coastal and tropical regions of Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu developed a specialization in cash crops like spices (pepper, cardamom), coffee, tea, rubber, and coconut, driven by the favorable climate and soil conditions.

5. Historical and Cultural Factors

• Colonial Impact on Crop Patterns: During the colonial period, certain regions were encouraged or coerced into growing cash crops for export, such as indigo in Bengal, opium in Bihar, and cotton in Maharashtra. This had long-term impacts on the agricultural map of India, with some regions shifting focus from subsistence to commercial agriculture.
• Traditional Agricultural Practices: Indigenous knowledge systems and traditional practices have also played a role in determining agricultural patterns. For example, the practice of shifting cultivation (jhum) in the North-Eastern hills reflects adaptation to the region's specific ecological conditions.

Conclusion

The agricultural map of India is a complex mosaic shaped by the interplay of geographical factors like climate, soil, topography, and water resources. Each region's unique combination of these factors has led to the development of distinct agricultural systems, which have been further influenced by historical, cultural, and technological developments. Thus, geography has been a fundamental determinant of agricultural practices, crop choices, and the overall economic organization of rural India.

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Question 3. Examine the economy of the Satavahana and the Gupta empires on the basis of the study of coins.

Ans. The study of coins, or numismatics, offers valuable insights into the economy of ancient empires such as the Satavahana and Gupta dynasties. Coins provide evidence of trade, economic stability, state control, and social conditions. By examining the types, inscriptions, and distribution of coins, historians can reconstruct the economic landscape of these empires.

Satavahana Empire (circa 1st century BCE to 3rd century CE)

The Satavahanas ruled a large part of the Deccan and Central India. Their coins are crucial for understanding the economy and trade networks during their rule.

1. Material and Types of Coins

• Metal Usage: Satavahana coins were primarily made of lead, potin (an alloy of copper and tin), copper, and silver. The extensive use of lead coins is unique and indicates the availability of local lead deposits, possibly from the Western Ghats.
• Types of Coins: The coins were predominantly square or rectangular, and later round, with inscriptions in Brahmi script. The coins were usually punched-marked or cast, with symbols such as elephants, horses, trees, and the Ujjain symbol (a cross with four circles at the ends).
• Bilingual Coins: Some Satavahana coins were bilingual, with Prakrit on one side and inscriptions in the Dravidian language on the other. This suggests the empire's diverse cultural and linguistic landscape.

2. Economic Implications

• Regional Trade: The extensive use of lead coins, a relatively low-value metal, suggests that these were used for local transactions and everyday trade within the Deccan region. The distribution of coins across the empire shows the extent of internal trade.
• Trade Routes: The symbols on Satavahana coins, especially those depicting ships and seafaring scenes, indicate active maritime trade with the Roman Empire, Southeast Asia, and other parts of India. The presence of Roman coins in Satavahana territory further corroborates this, suggesting a vibrant trade in luxury goods like spices, textiles, and precious stones.
• State Control and Economy: The variety in coin types and materials reflects a decentralized economic structure where local rulers had some autonomy in issuing currency. However, the consistent use of royal symbols on coins indicates the central authority’s role in maintaining economic stability.

3. Decline and Transition

• Economic Challenges: Towards the later period of the Satavahana rule, the quality and metal content of coins declined, indicating economic strain, possibly due to constant warfare and administrative challenges.
• Regional Powers: The decline in the issuance of coins towards the end of the Satavahana empire coincides with the rise of regional powers like the Ikshvakus, suggesting a fragmentation of their economic control.

Gupta Empire (circa 4th to 6th century CE)

The Gupta Empire is often referred to as the "Golden Age" of India, with a flourishing economy, stable administration, and significant achievements in art, science, and culture.

1. Material and Types of Coins

• Gold Coins (Dinaras): The Gupta empire is particularly famous for its gold coins, called dinaras, which were of high purity and artistic excellence. These coins often depicted the king in various poses, such as performing sacrifices, hunting, or playing musical instruments, symbolizing their role as both warriors and patrons of culture.
• Silver and Copper Coins: While gold coins were primarily used for large transactions and symbolized wealth and prosperity, the Guptas also issued silver and copper coins, which were likely used for more routine transactions within the empire.
• Inscriptions and Imagery: The inscriptions were mostly in Sanskrit, reflecting the cultural renaissance under the Guptas. The reverse side of the coins often depicted Hindu deities like Lakshmi, Ganga, or Kartikeya, indicating the religious leanings of the rulers and the cultural integration of religion and state.

2. Economic Implications

• Prosperity and Trade: The abundance and quality of gold coins indicate a period of economic prosperity. The Guptas likely accumulated gold through extensive trade, particularly with Southeast Asia and possibly through control over mines in South India.
• Standardization and State Control: The uniformity in the design and weight of Gupta coins suggests a high degree of centralization and state control over the economy. This standardization would have facilitated trade across the vast empire and promoted economic stability.
• Agriculture and Revenue: The images of kings performing rituals and sacrifices might also be symbolic of the agrarian economy, where land revenue was the primary source of income. The wealth generated from agriculture enabled the Guptas to issue gold coins on such a large scale.

3. Decline and Economic Changes

• Reduction in Gold Coinage: Towards the later Gupta period, there was a noticeable decline in the quantity and quality of gold coins, which some historians attribute to economic difficulties, such as the Hun invasions, declining trade, or depletion of gold reserves.
• Regional Fragmentation: As the central authority weakened, the issuance of coins became more localized, reflecting the fragmentation of the empire into smaller regional kingdoms, each with its own economy.

Conclusion

The coins of the Satavahana and Gupta empires provide a rich source of information about their economies. The Satavahanas, with their diverse and regionally varied coinage, reflect a decentralized yet vibrant economic system with strong internal and external trade networks. In contrast, the Gupta empire’s coins, particularly the gold dinaras, symbolize a more centralized and prosperous economy, supported by trade, agriculture, and a stable administration. The decline in the quality and quantity of coins in both empires towards their end indicates economic difficulties and the eventual fragmentation of political power. Thus, numismatics serves as a key tool in understanding the economic history of these ancient Indian empires.

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Question 4. Enumerate the importance of the silk route during c.600 BCE to 300 CE.

Question 5. Write short notes on any two of the following. Answer in about 250 words each.

i) First farmers of Bihar and the Doab

ii) Craft Specialisation: Harappan period

iii) Fluvial routes

iv) Urban centres: c.600 BCE to 300 CE

Question 6. Analyse briefly the irrigation techniques used during the early medieval and medieval

period in India

Question 7. Critically examine the methods of land revenue assessment under the Mughal.

Ans. The Mughal Empire, which ruled over large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the early 16th to the mid-18th century, developed a sophisticated system of land revenue assessment that was central to its administrative and economic structure. The methods of land revenue assessment under the Mughals were complex and evolved over time, reflecting the empire's efforts to maximize revenue while maintaining control over a vast and diverse territory. A critical examination of these methods reveals both the strengths and limitations of the Mughal revenue administration.

1. Zabt System

• Overview: The Zabt system was the most prominent method of land revenue assessment under the Mughals, particularly during the reign of Akbar (1556-1605). It involved measuring the land (using standardized units like the bigha), classifying it based on fertility, and then determining the average produce. The state's share was then fixed, usually around one-third of the produce, and was to be paid in cash.
• Strengths:
  • Standardization: The Zabt system attempted to standardize revenue collection, making it more predictable for both the state and the peasantry. This was a significant improvement over earlier systems that varied widely in different regions.
  • Efficiency: By fixing the state's share in cash, the system encouraged a monetized economy and reduced the state's dependence on in-kind payments, which could be cumbersome to collect and store.
  • Centralized Control: The system allowed for greater central control over revenue collection, reducing the autonomy of local intermediaries like zamindars (landlords) who could otherwise exploit the system.
• Limitations:
  • Bureaucratic Complexity: The Zabt system required a large and efficient bureaucracy to measure land, assess its productivity, and collect revenue. In practice, this often led to corruption and inefficiency, as officials could manipulate records to favor certain groups or embezzle funds.
  • Impact on Peasantry: The system could be harsh on peasants, particularly in years of poor harvests. Since the revenue was fixed based on average produce, peasants were required to pay the same amount even in years of drought or crop failure, leading to indebtedness and sometimes rebellion.
  • Regional Variations: The Zabt system was not uniformly implemented across the empire. It was more effective in the core regions like the Indo-Gangetic plains, but less so in peripheral areas with different agricultural practices, such as Bengal or the Deccan, where other systems were in use.

2. Raiyatwari and Kankut Systems

• Raiyatwari (Rai): In some areas, particularly those not suited to the Zabt system, the Raiyatwari method was used, where revenue was assessed based on an estimate of each individual farmer's (raiyat's) produce. This was a less standardized system, relying heavily on the local revenue officer's judgment.

  • Strengths:
    • Flexibility: The Raiyatwari system was more flexible than Zabt, allowing for adjustments based on local conditions and individual circumstances.
    • Local Autonomy: This method gave more power to local officials and farmers to negotiate the revenue, which could lead to more realistic assessments in diverse agricultural contexts.
  • Limitations:
    • Potential for Abuse: The system's reliance on local officials' judgment opened it up to significant potential for abuse, with corruption and favoritism being common.
    • Inconsistency: The lack of standardization could lead to significant variations in revenue assessment, creating uncertainty for both the state and the peasants.

• Kankut: The Kankut system involved estimating the produce of a crop either by physical inspection or by sampling a part of the crop. This method was often used in areas where accurate measurement of land was difficult.

  • Strengths:
    • Adaptability: Kankut could be adapted to varying agricultural conditions, making it useful in regions with less predictable crop yields.
  • Limitations:
    • Inaccuracy: The reliance on estimation could lead to inaccurate assessments, which could either undercut the state's revenue or overburden the peasantry.
    • Manipulation: Like the Raiyatwari system, Kankut was prone to manipulation by local officials, who could misreport crop yields for personal gain.

3. Nasaq or Ghalla-Bakshi System

• Overview: The Nasaq or Ghalla-Bakshi system was prevalent in the Deccan and involved a system of sharing the actual produce between the state and the peasants, rather than fixing a cash amount in advance.
• Strengths:
  • Revenue Sharing: This system allowed the state to share in the agricultural risks and rewards with the peasants, as the revenue would naturally fluctuate with the actual yield.
  • Local Acceptance: It was often more acceptable to local populations, as it aligned more closely with traditional revenue practices in these regions.
• Limitations:
  • Collection Challenges: The in-kind nature of the system made it logistically challenging to collect and store the produce, particularly in times of surplus.
  • Inconsistency: The revenue collected could vary widely from year to year, making it difficult for the state to maintain a stable income.

4. Other Methods and Regional Adaptations

• Dahsala System: Introduced by Akbar, the Dahsala system was a refinement of the Zabt method. It calculated the average produce of the previous ten years and set the revenue demand based on this average. This method aimed to smooth out the fluctuations in agricultural production and provide a more predictable revenue base.

  • Strengths: The use of a long-term average was intended to protect both the state and the peasants from the volatility of agricultural production.
  • Limitations: Like Zabt, it still required efficient administration and could be harsh on peasants during years of poor harvests.

• Regional Variations: In Bengal, a region with different agricultural practices, the Mughal administration adopted the Jama system, which was a form of annual settlement based on local conditions. This adaptability highlights the Mughals' pragmatic approach but also underscores the challenges of managing a diverse empire.

Conclusion

The Mughal land revenue assessment methods were advanced for their time and reflected the empire's need to extract revenue efficiently from a vast and diverse agrarian economy. The Zabt system, with its focus on standardization and monetization, represented an attempt to bring greater control and predictability to revenue collection. However, it also revealed the limitations of such an approach, particularly in terms of the administrative burden it placed on the state and the potential for hardship among the peasantry.

The diversity of methods—such as Raiyatwari, Kankut, and Nasaq—illustrates the Mughals' flexibility and pragmatism in dealing with different regions, but it also highlights the challenges of maintaining consistency and fairness across the empire. While the Mughal revenue system contributed to the empire's wealth and stability, it also laid the groundwork for regional disparities and social tensions, which would later contribute to the empire's decline.

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Question 8. Analyze the role and significance of Sarrafs during medieval period in India.

Ans. Sarrafs, or money-changers and bankers, played a crucial role in the economic life of medieval India. Their functions and significance extended beyond simple money-changing; they were key figures in the financial and commercial systems of the period. Here's an analysis of their role and significance:

1. Role of Sarrafs

a) Money-Changing

• Currency Conversion: Sarrafs were primarily known for their role in money-changing. Medieval India was characterized by a variety of coinages, issued by different kingdoms, local authorities, and foreign traders. Sarrafs facilitated the conversion of these different currencies, enabling trade across regions with different monetary systems.
• Assaying and Weighing: They were responsible for assaying the purity of coins and determining their value based on weight and metal content. This was crucial in an economy where coins of different metals and varying purity were in circulation.

b) Banking and Financial Services

• Hundi (Bill of Exchange): Sarrafs played a key role in the indigenous banking system, particularly through the issuance and discounting of hundis—a form of bill of exchange used for transferring money across distances. Hundis facilitated trade by allowing merchants to conduct business without carrying large amounts of cash, thereby reducing the risk of theft.
• Credit and Loans: They also provided credit to merchants, traders, and even rulers. Sarrafs lent money at interest, financed large trading ventures, and offered short-term loans for agricultural and commercial activities. In many cases, they functioned as the primary source of credit in urban centers.
• Deposits and Safekeeping: Sarrafs accepted deposits from individuals and businesses, providing safekeeping for wealth. They issued receipts for these deposits, which could be transferred or redeemed, functioning much like modern banking instruments.

c) Remittances and Trade Finance

• Facilitating Long-Distance Trade: Sarrafs were integral to the operation of long-distance trade networks. By issuing hundis and providing credit, they enabled merchants to operate across vast distances, connecting different parts of India and linking the subcontinent with Central Asia, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia.
• Remittances: They played a role in the remittance of money, particularly for migrant communities and merchants operating in distant regions, allowing for the safe and efficient transfer of funds across regions.

2. Significance of Sarrafs

a) Economic Integration

• Bridging Regional Economies: The services provided by sarrafs were crucial in integrating the regional economies of India. By facilitating currency exchange and providing credit, they enabled trade between diverse regions with different economic systems, promoting economic integration across the subcontinent.
• Standardization of Value: Their role in assaying and standardizing the value of various coins helped maintain a degree of uniformity in the economy, which was essential for the stability of markets and the facilitation of trade.

b) Support to the State

• Tax Collection and State Finance: Sarrafs were often involved in the collection of revenue for the state. They worked with state officials to collect taxes, convert them into usable currency, and sometimes even advance money to the state in anticipation of tax revenue. Their financial expertise was valuable to rulers in managing the state’s finances.
• Financing Wars and Construction: Rulers often relied on sarrafs to finance wars, construction projects, and other state activities. By providing loans and managing state treasuries, sarrafs played a significant role in supporting the political and military activities of the state.

c) Urbanization and Trade Expansion

• Growth of Urban Centers: The presence of sarrafs in medieval cities was a marker of economic prosperity. Their activities attracted merchants and traders, contributing to the growth of urban centers as hubs of commerce and trade.
• Expansion of Markets: By providing credit and facilitating the flow of money, sarrafs helped expand markets, encouraging the production and trade of goods. Their role was particularly important in the context of the growing trade networks of medieval India, both within the subcontinent and with the wider world.

d) Social and Cultural Influence

• Patronage of Religious and Cultural Activities: Many sarrafs, particularly those who were wealthy, acted as patrons of religious and cultural institutions. They funded the construction of temples, mosques, and other public works, contributing to the cultural and religious life of their communities.
• Integration of Communities: Sarrafs often came from specific communities, such as the Jain or Vaishya (merchant) communities, who were traditionally involved in trade and finance. Their activities helped integrate these communities into the broader socio-economic fabric of medieval India.

3. Challenges and Criticism

• High Interest Rates: Sarrafs often charged high interest rates, which could lead to indebtedness among borrowers, particularly small traders and peasants. This sometimes led to criticism of their practices, especially in religious and moral discourses.
• Vulnerability to Political Changes: The fortunes of sarrafs were closely tied to the stability of the regions in which they operated. Political instability, changes in regimes, and invasions could severely impact their operations, leading to financial losses.

Conclusion

Sarrafs were indispensable to the functioning of the medieval Indian economy. They provided essential financial services that facilitated trade, supported state functions, and contributed to the economic and social development of the period. While their practices were sometimes criticized, particularly regarding interest rates, their overall contribution to the economic integration and prosperity of medieval India was significant. The role of sarrafs exemplifies the complex interplay between commerce, finance, and politics in the historical development of the Indian subcontinent.

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Question 9. Discuss the basic feature of the organisation of postal communication in Mughal India.

Question 10. Write short notes on any two of the following. Answer in about 250 words each:

i) Medieval women as property holders

ii) Bridges in medieval period.

iii) Agra as an important entreport in the 17th century

iv) Karkhana and the artisans

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