Free Solved Assignment IGNOU MHI-107 History of Indian Economy-2 c.1700-2000 Current Year 2024-2025 Pdf

Free Solved Assignment IGNOU MHI-107 History of Indian Economy-2 c.1700-2000 Current Year 2024-2025 Pdf

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MHI-107 History of Indian Economy-2 c.1700-2000

                                                                                                                              Course Code: MHI-107

Assignment Code: MHI-107/AST/TMA/2024-25

Total Marks: 100

Note: Attempt any five questions. The assignment is divided into two Sections 'A' and 'B'. You have to attempt at least two questions from each section in about 500 words each. All questions carry equal marks. 

Question 1. ‘The eighteenth century was a century of universal decline.’ Comment.

Ans. The statement "The eighteenth century was a century of universal decline" is a sweeping generalization and can be contested from various historical perspectives. While certain areas and aspects of the eighteenth century did experience decline, others saw significant progress and transformation. Here's a more nuanced examination of the period:

Areas of Decline

1. Political Stability in Some Regions:

   • France: The latter part of the century saw increasing social and economic tensions leading to the French Revolution in 1789, which marked the end of the Ancien Régime.
   • Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Empire experienced military defeats and territorial losses, indicating a period of decline in its power and influence.
   • Spain and Portugal: These empires saw a decline in their colonial dominance and economic power, particularly in the face of rising British and French influence.

2. Economic Challenges:

   • Agricultural Struggles: Many parts of Europe faced agricultural difficulties, partly due to climatic conditions (such as the Little Ice Age) and partly due to outdated farming practices.
   • Colonial Exploitation: While some colonial powers benefited economically, the exploitation and extraction of resources led to long-term economic and social problems in colonized regions.

3. Social Inequality and Unrest:

   • Peasant and Worker Hardships: In many regions, peasants and workers faced harsh living conditions, leading to social unrest and uprisings, such as the Pugachev Rebellion in Russia.
   • Slavery and Human Rights Violations: The transatlantic slave trade was at its peak, leading to immense human suffering and long-term social and economic repercussions.

Areas of Progress and Transformation

1. Intellectual and Cultural Flourishing:

   • Enlightenment: The eighteenth century was the Age of Enlightenment, characterized by significant intellectual and philosophical advancements. Thinkers like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Kant challenged traditional views and laid the groundwork for modern thought.
   • Arts and Literature: This period saw remarkable achievements in arts and literature, with figures like Mozart, Beethoven, and Goethe making lasting contributions.

2. Scientific and Technological Advancements:

   • Scientific Revolution: Building on the seventeenth century, the eighteenth century saw continued progress in science, with figures like Isaac Newton, Benjamin Franklin, and Carolus Linnaeus making significant contributions.
   • Industrial Revolution: The latter part of the century witnessed the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution, which started in Britain and brought about profound economic and technological changes.

3. Political Developments:

   • American Revolution: The American Revolution (1775-1783) led to the founding of the United States, which had a significant impact on global politics and ideas of democracy and liberty.
   • Reform Movements: Various reform movements, influenced by Enlightenment ideas, sought to address social and political issues, leading to gradual changes in some societies.

4. Economic Growth in Certain Regions:

   • Britain: Despite challenges, Britain experienced economic growth and began its rise as a global industrial and colonial power.
   • Global Trade: The expansion of global trade networks, despite their exploitative aspects, led to economic interconnections that shaped the modern world economy.

Conclusion

The eighteenth century cannot be accurately described as a period of "universal decline." While there were significant challenges and declines in specific regions and aspects, it was also a time of remarkable intellectual, cultural, scientific, and economic progress. The complexity of the period defies a simplistic characterization, and it is better understood as a time of profound transformation and contrast

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Question 2. What role did the India merchants play in India’s trading economy during the late19th century?

Question 3. Critically examine recent arguments pertaining to drain of wealth.

Ans. The concept of the "drain of wealth" primarily refers to the colonial economic policies, particularly in the context of British colonial rule in India. This theory, originally articulated by Indian nationalist leaders and economists such as Dadabhai Naoroji, posits that colonial powers systematically transferred wealth from their colonies to the home country, leading to the impoverishment of the colonized regions. Recent arguments and scholarship have revisited and critiqued this concept from various angles. Here’s a critical examination of the contemporary discourse:

Traditional Arguments on the Drain of Wealth

1. Economic Exploitation:

   • Revenue Extraction: Colonial powers imposed heavy taxes on colonies, often leading to severe economic strain on local populations. In India, the land revenue system is a prime example.
   • Trade Policies: The colonial trade policies were designed to benefit the mother country, often at the expense of the colony's economy. Raw materials were extracted at low costs, and finished goods were sold back at higher prices.

2. Capital Flight:

   • Remittances and Transfers: Profits from colonial enterprises, salaries of British officials, and other forms of remittance were transferred to Britain, draining financial resources from the colonies.
   • Investment in Britain: Instead of reinvesting profits in the colonies, colonial powers often funneled these resources back to the home country, limiting economic development in the colonies.

3. Underdevelopment:

   • Lack of Industrialization: Colonies were often prevented from developing industries that could compete with those in the mother country. For instance, Indian textile industries were systematically dismantled to favor British imports.
   • Infrastructure for Extraction: Infrastructure development in colonies often prioritized the needs of the colonial powers (e.g., railways in India were built primarily to transport goods for British benefit).

Recent Arguments and Critiques

1. Reevaluation of Economic Data:

   • Economic Contributions: Some recent scholarship argues that the economic contributions of colonies to the home country were not as substantial as previously thought. They suggest that the financial burden of administering colonies sometimes outweighed the economic benefits.
   • Global Economic Context: Critics argue that global economic conditions, rather than solely colonial policies, played a significant role in shaping the economic trajectories of colonies. The interplay of global market forces and colonial policies is emphasized.

2. Long-term Impacts:

   • Institutional Legacy: Some scholars argue that the colonial period left a mixed legacy of institutions, some of which laid the groundwork for post-colonial economic development. For instance, legal and administrative systems established during the colonial period continue to function in many former colonies.
   • Human Capital Development: There is a debate over the impact of colonial education and training programs, with some suggesting that they contributed to human capital development in certain sectors.

3. Complex Interactions:

   • Collaborative Elites: Recent research highlights the role of local elites in collaborating with colonial powers, complicating the narrative of a one-sided drain of wealth. These elites often benefited from colonial policies, leading to a more nuanced understanding of wealth distribution.
   • Diverse Regional Impacts: The impact of colonial policies varied significantly across regions within colonies. For instance, while some regions in India were heavily exploited, others saw relative economic stability or growth due to different colonial strategies and local conditions.

4. Post-Colonial Critiques:

   • Neocolonialism: Modern critiques extend the concept of the drain of wealth to contemporary forms of economic exploitation, where multinational corporations and global trade policies are seen as perpetuating a new form of wealth drain from developing countries to developed ones.
   • Dependency Theory: This theory posits that the legacy of colonial economic structures continues to keep former colonies in a state of economic dependency, hindering their development and perpetuating global inequalities.

Conclusion

The concept of the drain of wealth remains a pivotal framework for understanding colonial economic exploitation. Recent arguments, however, bring a more nuanced perspective by integrating a broader range of factors, including global economic conditions, institutional legacies, and the complex interplay of local and colonial interests. While the traditional view of a unilateral wealth drain is challenged, the fundamental idea of economic exploitation and its long-term impacts on former colonies continues to hold relevance in contemporary discussions on global inequality and development.

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Question 4. Analyze the impact of colonial interventions on tribal economy.

Ans. The impact of colonial interventions on tribal economies was profound and multifaceted, leading to significant changes in their social, economic, and cultural structures. Below is an analysis of these impacts, highlighting the key areas of influence:

1. Displacement and Land Alienation

• Loss of Land: Colonial policies often resulted in the displacement of tribal communities from their ancestral lands. This was due to the creation of plantations, mining activities, and the establishment of reserved forests.
• Land Alienation: Tribal lands were frequently taken over by non-tribal settlers, including colonial administrators, industrialists, and farmers, leading to the alienation of tribal people from their primary means of livelihood.

2. Changes in Traditional Economic Practices

• Agricultural Disruption: The introduction of cash crops disrupted traditional subsistence farming. Tribes were coerced into growing commercial crops like tea, coffee, and rubber, which undermined their food security.
• Forest Resources: Colonial forest policies restricted access to forest resources, which were vital for tribal sustenance. The imposition of forest laws criminalized traditional practices such as shifting cultivation, hunting, and gathering.

3. Labor Exploitation

• Forced Labor: Tribals were often subjected to forced labor in plantations, mines, and infrastructure projects like railways. This exploitation was characterized by harsh working conditions and minimal wages.
• Debt Bondage: The introduction of a cash economy and colonial taxation led many tribal communities into debt, resulting in debt bondage and exploitation by moneylenders and landlords.

4. Socio-Cultural Disruption

• Cultural Assimilation: Colonial education and missionary activities aimed at assimilating tribals into mainstream society, often undermining their cultural identity and traditional knowledge systems.
• Social Structure: The imposition of colonial administrative systems disrupted traditional tribal governance structures, leading to the erosion of tribal leadership and community cohesion.

5. Economic Marginalization

• Market Exploitation: Tribals often found themselves marginalized in the new colonial market economy. They lacked the skills, knowledge, and resources to compete, leading to economic disenfranchisement.
• Monetization: The introduction of a monetized economy disrupted traditional barter systems, making tribals dependent on cash and vulnerable to exploitation.

6. Environmental Impact

• Deforestation: Colonial exploitation of forest resources for timber, plantations, and other commercial activities led to widespread deforestation, affecting the ecological balance and the livelihoods of forest-dependent tribes.
• Degradation of Land: Intensive colonial agricultural practices and mining activities led to the degradation of tribal lands, further reducing their ability to sustain traditional livelihoods.

Case Studies

1. India:

   • The British colonial forest policies, such as the Indian Forest Act of 1865 and 1878, restricted tribal access to forests, leading to significant economic and cultural disruptions.
   • The introduction of the zamindari system displaced many tribals from their lands, leading to their marginalization and exploitation.

2. Africa:

   • In Southern Africa, the colonial appropriation of land for European settlers and the imposition of taxes forced many tribes into wage labor in mines and farms.
   • The creation of game reserves and national parks restricted tribal access to hunting grounds, impacting their traditional livelihoods.

3. The Americas:

   • Indigenous tribes in North America were forcibly relocated through policies such as the Indian Removal Act, leading to loss of land and traditional livelihoods.
   • The introduction of European farming and livestock practices disrupted the ecological balance and traditional economies of many tribes.

Conclusion

Colonial interventions had a profound and largely detrimental impact on tribal economies. These interventions led to the displacement, economic marginalization, and cultural assimilation of tribal communities. The legacy of these colonial policies continues to affect tribal populations, contributing to ongoing challenges such as land rights issues, economic inequality, and cultural erosion. Understanding this historical context is crucial for addressing the current socio-economic issues faced by tribal communities and for formulating policies that promote their rights and development

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Question 5. Write short notes on any two of the following. Answer in about 250 words each.

i) Rise of European Private Trade

ii) Impact of Indian Commercialisation

iii) Herschell Committee Report

iv) Customary Rights of Forest-Dwellers

Question 6. Critically examine Morris D. Morris’ argument that there was ‘not much direct evidence of the decline of India’s traditional industries.’

Question 7. Critically examine women’s employability in colonial India.

Ans. Women's employability in colonial India is a multifaceted topic, influenced by socio-economic, cultural, and political factors. The colonial period, spanning from the late 18th century to the mid-20th century, saw significant changes in women's roles and opportunities for employment. This critical examination highlights the complexities and contradictions inherent in the employment landscape for women during this era.

1. Traditional Roles and Limited Opportunities

• Agricultural and Domestic Work: The majority of Indian women were engaged in traditional roles such as agricultural laborers and domestic workers. These roles were typically undervalued and underpaid.
• Cottage Industries: Women also participated in cottage industries, such as weaving, pottery, and food processing. These activities were often seen as extensions of domestic duties and provided minimal financial independence.

2. Colonial Economic Policies

• Displacement of Traditional Industries: British colonial policies led to the decline of traditional industries like handloom weaving, where many women were employed. The import of cheap British textiles disrupted local markets and displaced women from these occupations.
• Plantations and Mines: The establishment of plantations (tea, coffee, indigo) and mines created new labor opportunities. However, these were often characterized by harsh working conditions, low wages, and exploitation. Women laborers in plantations were particularly vulnerable to exploitation and abuse.

3. Education and Social Reform Movements

• Education Initiatives: The colonial period saw the introduction of Western education, albeit limited in reach. Missionaries and social reformers established schools for girls, leading to an increase in literacy rates among women. Education began to open up new employment opportunities in teaching, nursing, and clerical work.
• Social Reforms: Social reform movements, led by figures such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Jyotirao Phule, advocated for women's rights, including education and employment. These movements gradually began to challenge traditional gender roles and promote the idea of women's participation in the workforce.

4. Emergence of Professional Opportunities

• Health and Education: As education for women improved, some women began to enter professions such as teaching and nursing. These fields were seen as extensions of women's nurturing roles but provided more formal employment opportunities.
• Clerical and Administrative Jobs: The expansion of the colonial administration created a demand for clerical and administrative workers. Educated women, particularly from urban and middle-class backgrounds, began to find employment in these sectors.

5. Socio-Cultural Constraints

• Patriarchy and Social Norms: Deeply entrenched patriarchal norms and social customs restricted women's mobility and access to employment. Purdah (seclusion of women) and other cultural practices limited women's opportunities for work outside the home.
• Caste and Class: Employment opportunities for women were also shaped by caste and class. Upper-caste women were often more restricted by social norms, while lower-caste and tribal women had fewer constraints but faced harsher working conditions.

6. Political Movements and Nationalism

• Participation in Freedom Struggle: Women's involvement in the Indian freedom struggle, led by figures like Sarojini Naidu and Kasturba Gandhi, highlighted their capacity for leadership and activism. This participation began to shift public perceptions of women's roles in society.
• Post-Independence Impact: The momentum gained during the freedom movement laid the groundwork for post-independence policies aimed at improving women's education and employment opportunities.

7. Critical Perspectives

• Exploitation and Inequality: Despite new opportunities, women's employment in colonial India was often characterized by exploitation and inequality. Women received lower wages than men and had limited job security and rights.
• Resistance and Agency: Women exhibited agency and resistance in various forms, from participating in labor strikes to engaging in social reform movements. These actions challenged the status quo and paved the way for future advancements.

Conclusion

Women's employability in colonial India was marked by significant challenges and gradual advancements. While traditional roles persisted, colonial economic policies and social reform movements began to create new opportunities for women, particularly in education and professional fields. However, these opportunities were limited by socio-cultural constraints and pervasive gender inequality. The legacy of colonial policies and the efforts of social reformers and activists played a crucial role in shaping the trajectory of women's employment in India, laying the foundation for post-independence progress.

Question 8. Analyze the nature of Indian economic growth in the first three five year plans.

Ans. The first three Five Year Plans in India, spanning from 1951 to 1966, laid the foundation for the country's economic growth post-independence. These plans aimed at promoting self-sustained growth and addressing socio-economic inequalities. Here's an analysis of the nature of Indian economic growth during these plans:

First Five Year Plan (1951-1956)

Objectives and Focus:

• Agricultural Development: The primary focus was on agriculture, with the aim of increasing food production and tackling food shortages.
• Infrastructure Development: Emphasis on building infrastructure, including irrigation, power, and transportation.

Key Features:

• Community Development Programs: Introduced to uplift rural areas and improve living standards.
• Irrigation Projects: Major projects like the Bhakra Nangal Dam and Hirakud Dam were initiated to support agricultural growth.
• Land Reforms: Attempted to redistribute land and abolish feudal practices, although implementation was uneven.

Economic Growth:

• Modest Growth: The plan achieved a growth rate of around 3.6% per annum, which was slightly above the target of 2.1%.
• Agricultural Output: Significant improvements in food grain production, helping to reduce dependence on food imports.
• Industrial Base: Initial steps taken towards establishing an industrial base, but the focus remained largely on agriculture.

Second Five Year Plan (1956-1961)

Objectives and Focus:

• Industrialization: Shifted focus towards rapid industrialization, particularly heavy industries.
• Socialist Model: Adopted a socialist approach, emphasizing the role of the public sector in driving economic growth.

Key Features:

• Mahalanobis Model: Based on the ideas of P.C. Mahalanobis, the plan emphasized capital goods industries to create a strong industrial base.
• Public Sector Expansion: Significant investment in public sector enterprises, especially in steel, heavy machinery, and infrastructure.
• Education and Research: Investment in higher education and technical institutes to support industrial growth.

Economic Growth:

• Industrial Growth: Industrial production grew significantly, with a focus on building capacities in steel, machinery, and chemicals.
• GDP Growth: Achieved a growth rate of 4.1% per annum, slightly below the target of 4.5%.
• Employment: Industrialization created new employment opportunities, though not sufficient to address all unemployment and underemployment issues.

Third Five Year Plan (1961-1966)

Objectives and Focus:

• Self-Sufficiency: Aimed at achieving self-sufficiency in food grains and industrial raw materials.
• Balanced Growth: Emphasized balanced regional development and reducing disparities.

Key Features:

• Agricultural Emphasis: Renewed focus on agriculture through the Green Revolution, introducing high-yielding varieties of seeds and modern agricultural techniques.
• Heavy Industry Continuation: Continued investment in heavy industries and infrastructure development.
• Economic Diversification: Efforts to diversify the industrial base and promote small and medium enterprises.

Economic Growth:

• Agricultural Transformation: The Green Revolution began to take root, particularly in Punjab and Haryana, leading to increased food grain production.
• Mixed Results: The growth rate was around 2.8% per annum, below the targeted 5.6%, due to multiple challenges including droughts, Indo-China war (1962), and Indo-Pak war (1965).
• Industrial Development: Continued progress in industrial development, though issues like inefficiency and low productivity in the public sector emerged.

Challenges and Limitations

• Resource Constraints: Limited financial and natural resources constrained the extent of planned investments.
• Implementation Issues: Bureaucratic inefficiencies, corruption, and lack of effective implementation hampered the realization of plan objectives.
• Population Growth: Rapid population growth diluted the impact of economic growth on per capita income and living standards.
• External Shocks: Wars and droughts during the third plan period significantly affected economic stability and growth.

Conclusion

The first three Five Year Plans laid the groundwork for India's economic development, with a strong emphasis on agriculture and industrialization. While there were significant achievements, particularly in infrastructure and industrial base building, the plans also faced considerable challenges. The mixed results reflect the complexities of planning in a diverse and newly independent country. Despite these challenges, these early plans set the stage for subsequent economic policies and growth trajectories in India.

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Question. 9. What impact did bank nationalization had on the development of credit market, savings and investments?

Question 10. Write short notes on any two of the following. Answer in about 250 words each.

i) Early Census

ii) Bird Heiglers & Co.

iii) Globalisation

iv) Economic Reforms in the 1990s

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